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Ancient India
From Lithic ages to the Gupta decline. Includes detailed analysis of Sangam literature and Vedic metallurgy.
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Tripartite struggle to the Maratha Confederacy. Features deep maps of Sultanate trade routes and Mughal revenue systems.
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1857 to 1947. Covers tribal uprisings, forgotten revolutionaries, and the minute details of every Act from 1773 to 1947.
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Prehistoric & Ancient India (Until c. 650 CE)
c. 2,500,000 - 10,000 BCE
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) Period
This era marks the earliest human presence in India, characterized by nomadic hunter-gatherer societies. Early humans used crude stone tools made of quartzite, such as hand axes and choppers. Key sites like Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) and Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu) provide invaluable evidence, including some of the world's oldest stone tools and rock paintings that offer a glimpse into their life.
- Key Tool Types: Tools are classified into Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic. Lower Paleolithic tools include hand axes, cleavers, and choppers. Middle Paleolithic is defined by flakes and scrapers.
- Important Sites: Besides Bhimbetka, other key sites include Hunsgi (Karnataka), Didwana (Rajasthan), and the Soan Valley (Pakistan).
- Society: Humans lived in small, nomadic groups (bands). Their subsistence was based entirely on hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants.
- Homo Sapiens: First appeared in the late Upper Palaeolithic phase.
- Fire: Discovered during this age but controlled use began later.
- Quartzite Men: Palaeolithic people were called this as they used quartzite tools.
- Bhimbetka (MP): Discovered by V.S. Wakankar (1957); famous for rock shelters.
- Soan Valley: (Now in Pakistan) A key site for the 'Chopper-Chopping' tool culture.
- Hathnora (MP): Site where the skull of 'Narmada Man' (first hominid fossil in India) was found.
- Pallavaram (TN): First Palaeolithic tool in India discovered here by Robert Bruce Foote (1863).
- Lohanda Nala (UP): Site where a bone-made Mother Goddess statue was found.
- Patne (Maharashtra): Evidence of Ostriches found here (egg shells).
- Lifestyle: Totally unaware of agriculture, pottery, and fire control.
c. 10,000 - 4,000 BCE
Mesolithic & Neolithic Ages
The Mesolithic Age saw the development of smaller, more refined stone tools called microliths and the beginning of animal domestication. The subsequent Neolithic Age heralded the 'Neolithic Revolution', marked by the beginning of agriculture, settled villages, pottery, and the polishing of tools. The site of Mehrgarh in Balochistan shows the earliest evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.
- Mesolithic Sites: Key sites include Bagor (Rajasthan) and Adamgarh (MP), which show the earliest evidence of animal domestication.
- Neolithic Sites: Important sites include Burzahom (Kashmir), known for its "pit-dwellings," and Chirand (Bihar), known for bone tools. This era marks the shift from food-gathering to food-producing.
- Key Neolithic Crops: Early crops included wheat and barley (Mehrgarh), and later, rice (Koldihwa, UP).
- Domestication: Earliest evidence of animal husbandry found at Adamgarh (MP) and Bagor (Rajasthan).
- Mahadaha (UP): Site famous for bone ornaments and tools.
- Bhimbetka Paintings: Most paintings belong to the Mesolithic age (depicting hunting/dancing).
- Agriculture: First evidence of agriculture (Ragi/Wheat) found at Mehrgarh (Balochistan).
- Rice: Oldest evidence of Rice cultivation found at Koldihwa (UP).
- Burzahom (Kashmir): Unique practice of burying dogs with masters; evidence of pit-dwellings.
- Chirand (Bihar): Only site with massive bone tools (made of deer antlers).
- Piklihal (Karnataka): Famous for Neolithic 'Ash Mounds' (burnt cow dung).
- Pottery: First appeared in the Neolithic age (Grey Ware/Black-Burnished Ware).
- Wheel: Invention of the wheel is a hallmark of the Neolithic era.
c. 2600 – 1900 BCE
Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization)
One of the world's first great urban civilizations, the IVC flourished in the Indus River basin. It was a highly advanced Bronze Age society known for its meticulous urban planning, with cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro featuring sophisticated drainage systems and a grid-like street layout. Key features include the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, dockyards at Lothal, and unique terracotta seals like the Pashupati Seal. Their script remains undeciphered, and theories for their decline include climate change and Aryan invasion. Learn more about the great Dynasties of India.
- Key Discoveries: Bronze dancing girl from Mohenjo-daro, fire altars at Kalibangan, and a granary complex at Harappa.
- Trade: The IVC had extensive trade links with Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), evidenced by Harappan seals found there.
- Religion: Evidence points to the worship of a Mother Goddess (terracotta figurines) and a male deity (Pashupati seal), along with tree and animal worship.
- Grid System: Streets intersected at 90 degrees (Oxford Circus pattern).
- Burnt Bricks: Used in ratio 1:2:4; unique to IVC compared to contemporary civilizations.
- Surkotada (Gujarat): Only site revealing remains of a Horse (controversial point).
- Chanhu-daro: The only city without a Citadel; evidence of lipstick and bead-making factory.
- Lothal: Artificial brick dockyard; evidence of double burial (male & female together).
- Kalibangan: Evidence of a ploughed field, fire altars, and camel bones.
- Dholavira: Famous for unique water harnessing system and a 10-letter signboard.
- Metals: Bronze (Copper + Tin) was known; Iron was unknown.
- Crops: First to produce Cotton (called 'Sindon' by Greeks).
- Animals: Lion was not known to Indus people. Cow is not depicted on seals.
c. 1500 – 600 BCE
The Vedic Period
This era is defined by the composition of the Vedas. Early Vedic Period (c. 1500-1000 BCE): Described in the Rigveda, society was semi-nomadic and pastoral, with the tribe (jana) as the main political unit, led by a Rajan. Later Vedic Period (c. 1000-600 BCE): Society became agrarian with the use of iron. Large kingdoms (Janapadas) emerged, and the social structure became rigid with the Varna system. The concept of divine kingship grew stronger.
- Key Terms: Political assemblies like Sabha and Samiti declined in the Later Vedic period. The term Gotra (lineage) also appeared during this time.
- Later Vedic Texts: This period saw the composition of the Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas, as well as the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.
- Economy: The shift from pastoralism (cattle-rearing) to settled agriculture was the most important change. Iron tools and Painted Grey Ware (PGW) pottery are hallmarks of the Later Vedic phase.
- Max Muller: Propounded the 'Central Asia' theory of Aryan origin.
- Boghazkoi Inscription: (Turkey) Mentions 4 Vedic gods: Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Nasatyas.
- Dasrajan War: Battle of 10 Kings fought on river Parushni (Ravi); Sudas won.
- Rigvedic Rivers: Indus (Sindhu), Chenab (Asikni), Jhelum (Vitasta), Beas (Vipasha), Ravi (Parushni).
- Gayatri Mantra: Found in 3rd Mandala of Rigveda; dedicated to Savitri.
- Satyameva Jayate: Taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
- Taxes: 'Bali' (voluntary offering) became mandatory; 'Bhaga' (1/6th of produce).
- Metals: Copper was 'Ayas'; Iron was 'Shyama Ayas' or 'Krishna Ayas'.
- Vidushi: Women scholars like Gargi, Maitreyi, and Lopamudra existed.
- Gotra: The institution of Gotra appeared in the Later Vedic period.
c. 600 – 322 BCE
Age of Mahajanapadas & Religious Awakening
An era of intense political and philosophical development. Sixteen powerful kingdoms, or Mahajanapadas, emerged, including Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti. This period also witnessed the rise of new philosophical schools (Shramana traditions) challenging Vedic orthodoxy, most notably Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha, and Jainism, propagated by Mahavira.
- Rise of Magadha: Magadha emerged as the most powerful Mahajanapada due to its strategic location, iron deposits, and powerful rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru.
- Foreign Invasions: This period also saw the first foreign invasions of India, by the Persians (Achaemenids) under Darius and later the Macedonians under Alexander the Great (326 BCE).
- Second Urbanization: The Gangetic plains saw the rise of towns and cities for the first time since the Harappan civilization, fueled by agricultural surplus and trade.
- Sources: 16 Mahajanapadas listed in Buddhist text 'Anguttara Nikaya' & Jain text 'Bhagvati Sutra'.
- Capitals: Gandhara (Taxila), Matsya (Viratnagar), Surasena (Mathura), Vatsa (Kaushambi).
- Triratna (Jainism): Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct.
- Jain Philosophies: Anekantavada (Pluralism) and Syadvada (Maybe-ism).
- Buddha's Events: Mahabhinishkramana (Renunciation), Dharmachakrapravartana (First Sermon), Mahaparinirvana (Death).
- Buddhist Councils: 1st (Rajgriha - Ajatashatru), 2nd (Vaishali - Kalashoka), 3rd (Pataliputra - Ashoka), 4th (Kashmir - Kanishka).
- Tripitakas: Vinaya (Rules), Sutta (Sermons), Abhidhamma (Philosophy).
- Alexander: Invaded 326 BCE; Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum) vs Porus; his horse was Bucephalus.
- Jivaka: Royal physician of Bimbisara, sent to treat Avanti king Pradyota.
- Haryanka Dynasty: Bimbisara was the first to have a standing army (Seniya).
322 – 185 BCE
The Mauryan Empire
Founded by Chandragupta Maurya and his mentor Chanakya, this was the first great pan-Indian empire. Its centralized administration, detailed in Kautilya's Arthashastra, was a marvel of efficiency. Under Ashoka the Great, the empire reached its zenith. After the bloody Kalinga War, Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism and his policy of Dhamma marked a unique experiment in governance based on peace, propagated through his famous rock and pillar edicts.
- Primary Sources: Besides the Arthashastra, Megasthenes' Indica provides a detailed account of Mauryan society and administration.
- Ashokan Edicts: These were written in Prakrit language, using Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts. They are the first physical evidence of writing in ancient India post-IVC.
- Fall of the Mauryas: The empire declined after Ashoka. The last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his general, Pushyamitra Sunga, who founded the Sunga dynasty.
- Sandrocottus: Greek name for Chandragupta Maurya, identified by William Jones.
- Megasthenes: Greek ambassador; wrote 'Indica'; stated Indian society had 7 castes and no slavery.
- Sudarshana Lake: Built by Pushyagupta (Governor) in Girnar during Chandragupta's reign.
- Saptanga Theory: Kautilya's 7 limbs of state: Swami, Amatya, Janapada, Durga, Kosha, Danda, Mitra.
- Bhabru Edict: Only edict where Ashoka explicitly states his faith in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha.
- Ashoka's Names: 'Devanampiya Piyadassi'. Name 'Ashoka' found in Maski and Gujarra edicts.
- Barabar Caves: Oldest surviving rock-cut caves; donated by Ashoka to Ajivikas.
- Officers: 'Rajukas' (Justice/Revenue), 'Yuktas' (Secretaries), 'Dhamma-Mahamattas' (Morality officers).
- Taxes: 'Bhaga' (Land tax), 'Bali' (Religious tribute), 'Hiranya' (Cash tax).
- Sanchi Stupa: Originally built by Ashoka in brick.
c. 200 BCE - 300 CE
Post-Mauryan Period: A Time of Flux
After the Mauryas, India saw the rise of numerous regional powers. In the North, the Shungas, Kanvas, and Kushans held sway. The Kushan emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism and convened the Fourth Buddhist Council. This era saw the flourishing of the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art. In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established a powerful empire.
- Indo-Greeks: Known for introducing well-minted gold coins in India and influencing Hellenistic art. The most famous ruler was Menander.
- Satavahanas: They were a major power in the Deccan, known for their conflict with the Shakas and their patronage of Prakrit literature. Gautamiputra Satakarni was their most famous ruler.
- Art Schools: The Gandhara school (Greco-Roman influence) and the indigenous Mathura school were the first to create images of the Buddha.
- Heliodorus: Greek ambassador; erected the Garuda Pillar (Besnagar) worshipping Vasudeva.
- Rudradaman I: Saka ruler; issued the first long inscription in chaste Sanskrit (Junagarh Rock Inscription).
- Kanishka: Started the 'Saka Era' (78 AD). Patronized Charaka (Ayurveda) and Ashvaghosha (Buddhacharita).
- Headless Statue: Famous headless statue of Kanishka found at Mathura.
- Satavahanas: Issued coins of Lead (mainly) and Potin. First to grant tax-free land to Brahmins.
- Gathasaptasati: Prakrit text written by Satavahana king Hala.
- Sangam Literature: Tolkappiyam (Tamil Grammar), Silappadikaram (Epic), Manimekalai (Epic).
- Gandhara Art: Used Grey Sandstone; influenced by Greco-Roman style.
- Mathura Art: Used Spotted Red Sandstone; purely indigenous style.
- Silk Route: Controlled by Kushans, deriving massive revenue from tolls.
c. 320 – 550 CE
The Gupta Empire: The Golden Age of India
The Gupta period is renowned for its extraordinary achievements in science, mathematics, literature, and art. Key contributions include the decimal system and the concept of zero, astronomical discoveries by Aryabhata, and the literary masterpieces of Kalidasa. The empire fostered a culture of learning, with institutions like Nalanda University. This era saw the consolidation of Brahmanical Hinduism and the production of exquisite sculpture and temple architecture.
- Key Rulers: Chandragupta I (founder), Samudragupta (the "Napoleon of India"), and Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya" (whose court had the Navaratnas or Nine Jewels).
- Visitor: The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (Faxian) visited during the reign of Chandragupta II and wrote a detailed account of the prosperous and peaceful society.
- Decline: The empire began to weaken due to internal conflicts and, most importantly, the invasions of the Hunas (Hephthalites) from Central Asia.
- Gupta Era: Started in 319-320 AD by Chandragupta I.
- Licchavi Dauhitra: Title of Samudragupta (son of Licchavi princess Kumaradevi).
- V.A. Smith: Historian who called Samudragupta the "Napoleon of India".
- Mehrauli Pillar: Rust-free Iron Pillar in Delhi attributed to Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).
- Navaratnas: Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Dhanvantari, Varahamihira adorned Chandragupta II's court.
- Nalanda University: Founded by Kumaragupta I.
- Sudarshan Lake: Repaired again by Skandagupta's governor Parnadatta.
- Temple Architecture: Nagara style evolved. Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh) is the finest example.
- Scientific Works: Aryabhatiya (Aryabhata), Romaka Siddhanta (Varahamihira).
- Language: Sanskrit was the official court language.
Classical & Early Medieval India (c. 650 - 1206 CE)
606 – 647 CE
Reign of Harshavardhana
Harsha of the Pushyabhuti dynasty was the last great emperor to rule a unified North India in the ancient period. His reign is documented by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang. Harsha was a patron of learning, hosting assemblies at Kannauj and Prayag, and was an accomplished author himself, having written three Sanskrit plays including Ratnavali.
- Key Sources: Banabhatta's Harshacharita (Harsha's biography) and the travelogues of Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) are primary sources.
- Extent of Empire: Harsha's empire was vast, but his expansion southwards was famously checked by the Chalukyan king, Pulakeshin II, at the Narmada river.
- Religious Patronage: Though a Shaivite, Harsha was tolerant and famously patronized Buddhism, especially the Nalanda University.
- Capital: Shifted from Thanesar (Haryana) to Kannauj (UP).
- Plays by Harsha: Wrote three Sanskrit plays: *Priyadarshika*, *Ratnavali*, and *Nagananda*.
- Banabhatta: Court poet; wrote *Harshacharita* (Biography) and *Kadambari*.
- Hiuen Tsang: Called 'Prince of Pilgrims'; wrote *Si-Yu-Ki*. Studied at Nalanda.
- Aihole Inscription: Mentions Harsha's defeat by Pulakeshin II (Chalukya) on the banks of Narmada.
- Assemblies: Held grand religious assemblies at Kannauj and Prayag (Moksha Parishad).
- Kumbh Mela: Harsha is believed to have started the Kumbh fair at Allahabad.
- Taxation: Collected 1/6th of the produce as tax.
- Officials: 'Mahasandhivigrahika' was the officer of war and peace.
- Death: Died in 647 AD, leaving no heir, leading to the Tripartite struggle.
c. 750 - 1000 CE
The Tripartite Struggle
A century-long conflict for control over the imperial city of Kannauj between three major powers: the Gurjara-Pratiharas of the west, the Palas of the east, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. This struggle for supremacy weakened all three dynasties, contributing to the political fragmentation that preceded the Turkic invasions.
- Significance: This struggle illustrates the shift in political power from Pataliputra to Kannauj in North India.
- Key Rulers Involved: Notable participants included Dharmapala (Pala), Vatsaraja (Pratihara), and Dhruva (Rashtrakuta).
- Result: While the Pratiharas ultimately "won" and held Kannauj, all three powers were severely weakened, creating a vacuum in the north.
- Objective: To control the city of Kannauj (Symbol of sovereignty).
- Palas: Founded by Gopala. Dharmapala founded Vikramshila University.
- Pratiharas: Greatest ruler was Mihir Bhoja (Devotee of Vishnu, title 'Adivaraha').
- Rashtrakutas: Founded by Dantidurga. Krishna I built the Kailasa Temple at Ellora.
- Kavirajamarga: First Kannada poetic work written by Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha.
- Sulaiman: Arab merchant who visited the court of Mihir Bhoja.
- Al-Masudi: Arab traveler who visited the Rashtrakuta court (calling them 'Balhara').
- Elephanta Caves: Associated with the Rashtrakutas.
- Sanctuary: Palas were the last great patrons of Buddhism in India.
- Outcome: Pratiharas ultimately held Kannauj but all three powers were exhausted.
1191 & 1192 CE
Battles of Tarain
A pivotal turning point in Indian history, these two battles were fought between the Ghurid forces of Muhammad Ghori and the Rajput confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan.
- First Battle (1191): Prithviraj Chauhan won decisively, forcing a wounded Ghori to retreat.
- Second Battle (1192): Ghori returned with a larger, more organized army and defeated Prithviraj, executing him.
- Consequence: This victory opened the Gangetic plains to Ghurid conquest and directly led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by Ghori's general, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, in 1206.
- Prithviraj Raso: Epic poem by Chand Bardai (Court poet) describing Prithviraj's life.
- Dynasty: Prithviraj belonged to the Chauhan (Chahamana) dynasty of Ajmer/Delhi.
- Jaichand: King of Kannauj (Gahadavala dynasty) who allegedly betrayed Prithviraj.
- Battle of Chandawar (1194): Ghori defeated and killed Jaichand.
- Lakshmi Coins: Ghori issued coins with the image of Goddess Lakshmi on one side and Kalima on the other.
- Technology: Turks brought iron stirrups and horse-shoeing technology, giving them cavalry advantage.
- Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti: Came to India along with Ghori's army (settled in Ajmer).
- Bakhtiyar Khilji: Ghori's general who destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila universities (c. 1200).
- Slaves: Ghori had no son; he left his Indian territories to his slave Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
- Significance: Regarded as the foundational event for Muslim rule in India.
c. 850 – 1279 CE
The Imperial Chola Dynasty
The Cholas were a dominant maritime power. Under rulers like Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, their empire extended across Southeast Asia. They were known for their powerful navy, sophisticated administrative system (including village self-government or 'ur'), and magnificent temples. The bronze sculpture of this era, especially the Nataraja icon, is considered a pinnacle of Indian art.
- Local Self-Government: The Uttaramerur Inscription provides detailed information about the Chola village assembly, its committees (variyams), and election processes.
- Architecture: They built grand Dravidian temples, such as the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur (by Rajaraja I) and the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple (by Rajendra I).
- Naval Power: Rajendra I's navy famously launched an expedition against the Srivijaya Empire (Indonesia) and controlled the Bay of Bengal, which was called the "Chola Lake".
- Capital: Thanjavur (Tanjore). Founder: Vijayalaya.
- Uttaramerur Inscription: Gives detailed qualifications for election to Village Committees (Variyams).
- Nataraja: Famous Bronze image of Shiva (Cosmic Dance) cast during this period.
- Rajaraja I: Conquered Northern Sri Lanka; built Brihadeeswarar Temple (Rajarajeshwara).
- Rajendra I: Conquered whole Sri Lanka; took title 'Gangaikondachola' after defeating Mahipala (Bengal).
- Chola Lake: The Bay of Bengal was converted into a 'Chola Lake' due to naval supremacy.
- Dravida Style: Temple architecture peaked; key features: Vimana (Tower) and Gopuram (Gateway).
- Kamban: Wrote the 'Ramavataram' (Kamba Ramayanam) in Tamil during this era.
- Trade: Maintained strong trade links with China (Embassy sent by Kulottunga I).
- Devadasis: The institution of Devadasis (Temple dancers) became prominent.
c. 700 - 1200 CE
The Bhakti and Sufi Movements
A period of profound socio-religious reform. The Bhakti movement, with its emphasis on devotion, gained momentum with saints like the Alvars and Nayanars, and philosophers like Shankaracharya (Advaita) and Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita). Simultaneously, Sufi mystics like Moinuddin Chishti introduced a liberal and mystical dimension to Islam in India.
- Key Philosophers: Shankaracharya preached Advaita (Non-dualism), Ramanuja preached Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Monism), and Madhvacharya preached Dvaita (Dualism).
- Sufi Silsilahs: Sufism was organized into orders or silsilahs, the most prominent in India being the Chishti and Suhrawardi orders.
- Impact: Both movements challenged the rigidity of caste, preached in local languages, and promoted Hindu-Muslim harmony.
- Shankaracharya: Propounded 'Advaita' (Non-Dualism); set up 4 Mathas (Dwarka, Puri, Sringeri, Badrinath).
- Ramanuja: Propounded 'Vishishtadvaita' (Qualified Non-dualism).
- Basavanna: Founded Virashaiva/Lingayat sect in Karnataka (opposed caste).
- Maharashtra Dharma: Led by saints Jnanadeva, Namdeva, Eknath, Tukaram, and Ramdas.
- Kabir: Disciples called Kabirpanthis; verses found in 'Bijak' and Guru Granth Sahib.
- Chishti Order: Founded by Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer). Believed in poverty and music (Sama).
- Baba Farid: A Chishti saint whose verses are included in the Guru Granth Sahib.
- Nizamuddin Auliya: Chishti saint who saw the reign of 7 Sultans; famous quote "Hunuz Dilli Dur Ast".
- Suhrawardi Order: Unlike Chishtis, they accepted royal patronage and amassed wealth.
- Guru Nanak: Born in Talwandi (Nankana Sahib); introduced the concept of 'Langar'.
The Sultanates & Mughal Era (1206 - 1857 CE)
1206 – 1526 CE
The Delhi Sultanate
Five dynasties—Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi—ruled from Delhi. They introduced Indo-Islamic architecture. Rulers like Iltutmish consolidated the state, Alauddin Khilji implemented revolutionary market reforms, and Muhammad bin Tughlaq was known for his ambitious experiments. The period ended with Ibrahim Lodi's defeat at the First Battle of Panipat.
- Administrative Terms: The period introduced the Iqta system (land grants) and departments like Diwan-i-Arz (military) and Diwan-i-Kohi (agriculture).
- Architecture: Key examples include the Qutub Minar (started by Aibak, finished by Iltutmish) and the Alai Darwaza by Alauddin Khilji.
- Key Rulers: Iltutmish (established the "Turkan-i-Chahalgani"), Balban (centralized power), Alauddin Khilji (market reforms), and Muhammad bin Tughlaq (token currency, capital shift).
- Qutb-ud-din Aibak: Known as 'Lakh Baksh' (Giver of Lakhs). Died playing Chaugan (Polo).
- Turkan-i-Chahalgani: Group of 40 nobles created by Iltutmish, destroyed by Balban.
- Balban: Policy of 'Blood and Iron'; introduced Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing feet).
- Alauddin Khilji: First to pay soldiers in cash; Market Control System (Sahana-i-Mandi); Alai Darwaza.
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Shifted capital (Delhi to Daulatabad); Token currency (Bronze); Diwan-i-Kohi (Agri).
- Firoz Shah Tughlaq: Built canals; Diwan-i-Bandagan (Slaves); imposed Jizya on Brahmins.
- Amir Khusrau: 'Parrot of India' (Tuti-e-Hind); invented Sitar and Tabla.
- Ibn Battuta: Moroccan traveler; wrote 'Kitab-ul-Rihla' during MbT's reign.
- Agra City: Founded by Sikandar Lodi in 1504.
- Vijayanagara: Established (1336) during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
1526 – 1707 CE
The Mughals
Founded by Babur, the Mughal Empire became one of the richest empires in the world. The reign of the 'Great Mughals' saw remarkable political consolidation. Akbar is known for his administrative genius (Mansabdari system) and religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul). Shah Jahan's reign is the golden age of Mughal architecture (Taj Mahal), while Aurangzeb's reign saw the empire at its largest extent but also the beginnings of its decline due to his Deccan policy.
- Revenue System: Akbar's minister Raja Todar Mal introduced the Zabti or Dahsala system of land revenue assessment.
- Art: Mughal miniature painting reached its zenith under Jahangir. Architecture peaked under Shah Jahan.
- Decline: Aurangzeb's long wars in the Deccan drained the treasury, and his orthodox policies alienated groups like the Marathas, Jats, and Sikhs, leading to the empire's collapse.
- Babur: Wrote autobiography 'Tuzuk-i-Baburi' in Turkish. Used Tulughma warfare.
- Sher Shah Suri: Built Grand Trunk Road; introduced 'Rupiya'; Tomb at Sasaram (Bihar).
- Akbar: Bairam Khan (Regent); Ibadat Khana (1575); Mazharnama (1579); Buland Darwaza (Gujarat victory).
- Todar Mal: Associated with the 'Dahsala' or 'Zabti' land revenue system.
- Jahangir: Installed 'Zanjir-i-Adl' (Chain of Justice); Executed 5th Sikh Guru Arjan Dev.
- Shah Jahan: Built Peacock Throne (Takht-e-Taus); Golden Age of Architecture.
- Aurangzeb: Called 'Zinda Pir'; Re-imposed Jizya (1679); Executed 9th Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur.
- Mansabdari: System of ranking based on 'Zat' (Rank) and 'Sawar' (Troops).
- Painters: Daswant/Basawan (Akbar); Ustad Mansur/Bishandas (Jahangir).
- Tulsidas: Wrote Ramcharitmanas during the reign of Akbar.
c. 1674 – 1818 CE
The Maratha Empire
Founded by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the Maratha Empire rose to become the dominant power in 18th century India. They effectively replaced the declining Mughals. Their power was eventually broken by the British after a series of three major Anglo-Maratha Wars.
- Administration: Shivaji's administration was known as the Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight Ministers).
- Taxation: The Marathas collected two major taxes: Chauth (1/4th of revenue from non-Maratha lands) and Sardeshmukhi (an additional 1/10th levy).
- Expansion: Under the Peshwas (like Baji Rao I), the empire expanded into a confederacy, reaching its zenith before its defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
- Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj: Born at Shivneri (1627); Guru was Ramdas; Guardian was Dadaji Kondadev.
- Treaty of Purandar (1665): Signed between Shivaji and Raja Jai Singh (Aurangzeb's representative).
- Coronation: Held at Raigad (1674); assumed title 'Haindava Dharmoddharak'.
- Taxes: 'Chauth' (1/4th of revenue for protection) and 'Sardeshmukhi' (additional 10%).
- Ashtapradhan: Council of 8 ministers; 'Peshwa' (PM) and 'Amatya' (Finance) were key.
- Guerrilla Warfare: Known as 'Ganimi Kava' in Marathi.
- Balaji Vishwanath: First Peshwa; induced the 'Magna Carta of Maratha Dominion' from Mughals.
- Baji Rao I: Propagated 'Hindu Pad Padshahi'; relation with Mastani.
- Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Marathas (Sadashivrao Bhau) defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali.
- Last Peshwa: Baji Rao II; exiled to Bithur after 3rd Anglo-Maratha War (1818).
The British Raj & Freedom Struggle (1757 - 1947 CE)
1757 CE & 1764 CE
Battles of Plassey and Buxar
The Battle of Plassey (1757), won by the British through conspiracy, marked the start of their rule. The subsequent Battle of Buxar (1764) was a true military victory that granted the East India Company the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, providing the financial foundation for their colonial expansion.
- Treaty of Allahabad (1765): Signed after Buxar, this treaty formalized the grant of Diwani and established "Dual Government" in Bengal.
- Significance: Buxar was the more decisive battle, as it was a military victory over the combined forces of the Mughal Emperor, the Nawab of Awadh, and the Nawab of Bengal.
- Black Hole Tragedy: 146 Britishers imprisoned by Siraj-ud-Daula; only 23 survived (Account by Holwell).
- Betrayal: Mir Jafar (Mir Bakshi) betrayed Siraj-ud-Daula at Plassey.
- Plassey Outcome: British got Zamindari of 24 Parganas.
- Battle of Buxar: Fought by Hector Munro against Triple Alliance (Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula, Shah Alam II).
- Treaty of Allahabad (1765): Shah Alam II granted 'Diwani' rights to EIC for 26 Lakhs/year.
- Dual Government: Established by Robert Clive in Bengal (1765); abolished by Warren Hastings (1772).
- Jagat Seth: Powerful banker involved in the conspiracy against Siraj.
- Mir Qasim: Shifted capital from Murshidabad to Munger (Monghyr).
- Significance: Plassey laid the foundation; Buxar secured the rule.
- Robert Clive: Served as Governor of Bengal twice.
1773 - 1853 CE
Key Legislative Acts by the British
A series of acts gradually increased British control. The Regulating Act of 1773 was the first step towards parliamentary control. The Charter Act of 1813 ended the Company's trade monopoly, and the Charter Act of 1833 made the Governor-General of Bengal the Governor-General of India, centralizing power.
- Pitt's India Act (1784): Established the "Board of Control" in Britain, creating a "dual control" system over the Company's affairs.
- Charter Act of 1813: Also allocated funds for the promotion of education in India.
- Charter Act of 1853: This was the last Charter Act and introduced, for the first time, a system of open competition for the civil services.
- Regulating Act 1773: Governor of Bengal became 'Governor General of Bengal' (Warren Hastings).
- Supreme Court: Established at Calcutta (1774) under the 1773 Act; Elijah Impey was Chief Justice.
- Pitt's India Act 1784: Created 'Board of Control' for political affairs (Dual Control).
- Charter Act 1813: Ended EIC trade monopoly (except Tea & China); 1 Lakh for education.
- Charter Act 1833: GG of Bengal became 'Governor General of India' (William Bentinck).
- Sati Abolition (1829): Banned by William Bentinck with help of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
- Macaulay Minute (1835): Recommended English as medium of instruction.
- Charter Act 1853: Introduced open competition for Civil Services (ICS).
- Wood's Despatch (1854): Called the 'Magna Carta of English Education in India'.
- Railways: First train ran between Bombay and Thane (1853) under Lord Dalhousie.
1857 CE
The Great Rebellion of 1857
Also known as India's First War of Independence, this was a massive rebellion against the British East India Company. It led to the end of Company rule and the beginning of direct rule by the British Crown (the British Raj) via the Government of India Act 1858.
- Key Leaders: Rani Lakshmibai at Jhansi, Nana Saheb at Kanpur, Begum Hazrat Mahal at Lucknow, and Kunwar Singh at Arrah.
- Immediate Cause: The introduction of the Enfield rifle, whose cartridges were greased with animal fat, offending both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
- Symbol: Lotus and Bread (Chapati).
- Mangal Pandey: 34th Native Infantry; executed at Barrackpore (April 8, 1857).
- Start Date: Officially began on May 10, 1857, at Meerut.
- General Bakht Khan: Led the bareilly troops; nominal leader was Bahadur Shah Zafar.
- Begum Hazrat Mahal: Led the revolt at Lucknow; fled to Nepal.
- Hugh Rose: British General who defeated Rani Laxmibai (calling her "the only man among rebels").
- Nana Saheb: Adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II; led Kanpur revolt with Tantia Tope.
- Kunwar Singh: 80-year-old Zamindar of Jagdishpur (Bihar); won battles despite age.
- V.D. Savarkar: Called it the "First War of Indian Independence" (1909).
- R.C. Majumdar: Called it "Neither first, nor national, nor a war of independence".
1858 CE
Government of India Act, 1858
Following the Revolt of 1857, this act was passed by the British Parliament, marking a total shift in administration and policy in India.
- Key Changes: It abolished the East India Company and the Board of Control, transferring all governing power directly to the British Crown.
- New Offices: The title of Governor-General was changed to Viceroy (as the Crown's personal representative). A new cabinet post, the Secretary of State for India, was created in London.
- Queen's Proclamation: Issued by Queen Victoria, it promised to end the policy of annexation (like the 'Doctrine of Lapse') and to respect the rights, dignity, and honor of native princes.
- Magna Carta: Queen's Proclamation (Nov 1, 1858) read by Canning at Allahabad.
- Good Governance: Act known as 'Act for the Good Government of India'.
- Viceroy: Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India.
- Secretary of State: New office created in London with a 15-member council.
- Peel Commission: Appointed to reorganize the Army (reducing Indian:British ratio).
- Doctrine of Lapse: Formally withdrawn.
- Indian Councils Act 1861: Introduced the 'Portfolio System' (Cabinet system) by Canning.
- IPC: Indian Penal Code enacted in 1860.
- High Courts Act 1861: High Courts established at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
- Budget: First Budget introduced by James Wilson in 1860.
1885 CE
Formation of the Indian National Congress
The INC was formed to create a platform for educated Indians. It later became the principal vehicle of the independence movement, led by figures like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Sardar Patel.
- Founder: Formed by A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant.
- First Session: Held in Bombay (now Mumbai) under the presidency of W.C. Bonnerjee.
- Initial Phase (Moderates): From 1885-1905, it was dominated by Moderates (like G.K. Gokhale, P. Mehta) who believed in constitutional methods of "Prayer, Petition, and Protest".
- Date: Dec 28, 1885. Venue: Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.
- A.O. Hume: Retired civil servant; General Secretary (1885-1906); 'Father of INC'.
- W.C. Bonnerjee: First President; attended by 72 delegates.
- Lord Dufferin: Viceroy at the time; called INC a "microscopic minority".
- George Yule: First English President (Allahabad, 1888).
- Badruddin Tyabji: First Muslim President (Madras, 1887).
- Annie Besant: First Woman President (Calcutta, 1917).
- Sarojini Naidu: First Indian Woman President (Kanpur, 1925).
- Gandhiji: President only once (Belgaum Session, 1924).
- Safety Valve Theory: Idea that Hume formed INC to release pent-up Indian discontent.
1905 CE & 1906 CE
Partition of Bengal & Formation of Muslim League
The Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon sparked the Swadeshi Movement. A year later, the All-India Muslim League was formed in Dacca, which initially aimed to protect Muslim interests and later became the primary advocate for the creation of Pakistan.
- Swadeshi Movement: This movement involved the boycott of British goods and the promotion of Indian (swadeshi) goods.
- Surat Split (1907): The INC split into Moderates and Extremists (Lal, Bal, Pal) over the goals and methods of the Swadeshi movement.
- Annulment of Partition: The partition was ultimately annulled in 1911 due to widespread protest. The capital of India was also shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in the same year.
- Date: Partition effective from Oct 16, 1905 (Observed as 'Day of Mourning' & 'Raksha Bandhan').
- Lord Curzon: Viceroy responsible for the partition.
- Vande Mataram: Sung for the first time in context of the Swadeshi movement.
- Amar Sonar Bangla: Written by Tagore; later became Bangladesh's anthem.
- Muslim League: Founded Dec 30, 1906 at Dhaka by Aga Khan and Salimullah.
- Surat Split (1907): INC split into Moderates & Extremists; Presided by Rasbehari Ghosh.
- Morley-Minto Reforms (1909): Introduced separate electorates for Muslims.
- Delhi Durbar (1911): Visit of King George V; Partition annulled.
- Capital Shift: Capital moved from Calcutta to Delhi (Announced 1911, effective 1912).
- Bomb Case: Bomb thrown at Viceroy Hardinge (1912) by Rash Behari Bose.
1919 CE
Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
The repressive Rowlatt Act allowed for detention without trial. Protests against it led to the brutal Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in Amritsar, where British troops fired on an unarmed crowd, a turning point that intensified the struggle for freedom.
- Context: The massacre occurred on April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi day) when people gathered to protest the arrest of leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satya Pal.
- Consequence: Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest. This event was a direct trigger for Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement.
- Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): In the same year, these reforms introduced Dyarchy (dual government) in the provinces.
- Black Act: Rowlatt Act authorized arrest without trial ("No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal").
- Arrest: Dr. Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew arrested in Amritsar.
- Massacre Date: April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi Day).
- General Dyer: Ordered the firing. Michael O'Dwyer was Lt. Governor of Punjab.
- Udham Singh: Assassinated Michael O'Dwyer in London (1940).
- Renunciation: Rabindranath Tagore gave up Knighthood; Gandhi gave up Kaiser-i-Hind.
- Hunter Commission: Appointed to investigate the massacre.
- Chelmsford: Viceroy during the massacre.
- Mont-Ford Reforms (1919): Introduced 'Dyarchy' (Dual rule) in provinces.
- Chamber of Princes: Established in 1921 as a result of the 1919 Act.
1928 - 1929 CE
Simon Commission & Purna Swaraj
The Simon Commission, an all-white, 7-member group, arrived in India to review the Act of 1919. It was met with widespread protests and the slogan "Simon Go Back".
- Impact: During a protest against the commission in Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten and died from his injuries.
- Nehru Report (1928): As a response to the challenge to frame a constitution, Motilal Nehru presented the Nehru Report, which demanded "Dominion Status".
- Lahore Congress (1929): Dissatisfied with the Nehru Report, the INC, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, passed the historic "Purna Swaraj" (Complete Independence) resolution.
- Simon Commission: 7 members, all white (White Man Commission). Arrived Feb 3, 1928.
- Lala Lajpat Rai: Died due to lathi charge in Lahore protest ("Every blow... is a nail in the coffin...").
- Saunders Murder: Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Azad killed Saunders to avenge Lajpat Rai.
- Nehru Report (1928): Drafted by Motilal Nehru; demanded Dominion Status.
- Jinnah's 14 Points: Proposed in reaction to the Nehru Report.
- Lahore Session (1929): Presided by Jawaharlal Nehru. Passed 'Purna Swaraj' resolution.
- Tricolor: Hoisted on the banks of river Ravi at midnight Dec 31, 1929.
- Independence Day: Jan 26, 1930 was observed as the first Independence Day pledge.
- Bomb in Assembly: Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt (April 8, 1929).
- Jatin Das: Died after 63-day hunger strike in jail.
1920 - 1942 CE
The Gandhian Era of Mass Movements
This period was dominated by three major movements led by Mahatma Gandhi: the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920), the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) launched with the Dandi Salt March, and the Quit India Movement (1942) with its "Do or Die" call.
- Non-Cooperation (1920-22): Combined with the Khilafat Movement, it was withdrawn due to the Chauri Chaura incident.
- Civil Disobedience (1930-34): Began with the Dandi March to break the salt law. Led to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and the Second Round Table Conference.
- Quit India (1942): A "leaderless" revolt that marked the final push for independence, with most leaders jailed on the first day.
- Champaran (1917): First Civil Disobedience; against Tinkathia system (Indigo).
- Ahmedabad Mill (1918): First Hunger Strike.
- Kheda (1918): First Non-Cooperation.
- Chauri Chaura (1922): Mob burned police station; Gandhi withdrew NCM.
- Swaraj Party (1923): Founded by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru.
- Dandi March (1930): Sabarmati to Dandi; 78 followers; 24 days; Salt Satyagraha.
- Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): Gandhi agreed to attend 2nd Round Table Conference.
- Poona Pact (1932): Signed between Gandhi (in Yerwada Jail) and Ambedkar regarding Depressed Classes.
- August Offer (1940): Linlithgow offered Dominion Status (rejected).
- Quit India (1942): "Do or Die" speech at Gowalia Tank, Bombay. Parallel govts formed (Ballia, Tamluk, Satara).
1947 CE
Mountbatten Plan and Independence
The Mountbatten Plan outlined the partition of British India. On August 15, 1947, India achieved its freedom, but it was accompanied by the painful Partition, which created the dominion of Pakistan and led to widespread violence and mass migration.
- Key Plans: Preceded by the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946), which proposed a united India with a weak center. Its failure led to the Mountbatten Plan (June 3rd Plan), which accepted partition.
- Radcliffe Line: The boundary between India and Pakistan was drawn by the Radcliffe Commission.
- Indian Independence Act, 1947: This act of the British Parliament gave legal effect to the Mountbatten Plan.
- Cabinet Mission (1946): Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander. Rejected partition.
- Direct Action Day: Aug 16, 1946; called by Muslim League ("Leke rahenge Pakistan").
- Interim Govt: Formed Sept 2, 1946 led by Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Attlee's Declaration: British to leave India by June 30, 1948.
- Mountbatten Plan: June 3, 1947; plan for partition. Also called 'Dickie Bird Plan'.
- Radcliffe Line: Boundary commission chaired by Cyril Radcliffe.
- Independence Act: Passed July 18, 1947; created two dominions.
- C. Rajagopalachari: First and last Indian Governor-General of free India.
- M.A. Jinnah: First Governor-General of Pakistan.
- Integration: V.P. Menon was the Secretary of the States Department assisting Patel.
Independent India (1947 CE - Present)
1947 - 1950 CE
Integration of States & Framing the Constitution
A monumental task accomplished by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was the integration of over 560 princely states into the Indian Union. Simultaneously, the Constituent Assembly, chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the head of the Drafting Committee, framed the Constitution of India.
- Key Integrations: Most states joined peacefully, but force was used for Junagadh (plebiscite) and Hyderabad (Operation Polo). Kashmir acceded under special circumstances.
- Constituent Assembly: Took 2 years, 11 months, and 18 days to draft the constitution, which was adopted on Nov 26, 1949.
- Constituent Assembly: Idea by M.N. Roy (1934); formed under Cabinet Mission Plan.
- First Meeting: Dec 9, 1946. Temp President: Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha.
- Permanent President: Dr. Rajendra Prasad (elected Dec 11, 1946).
- Objective Resolution: Moved by Nehru on Dec 13, 1946 (Base of Preamble).
- Drafting Committee: Set up Aug 29, 1947. Chairman: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
- Time Taken: 2 Years, 11 Months, 18 Days.
- Original Constitution: 395 Articles, 8 Schedules, 22 Parts.
- Junagadh: Integrated via Plebiscite (Feb 1948).
- Hyderabad: Integrated via 'Operation Polo' (Police Action, Sept 1948).
- Kashmir: Instrument of Accession signed by Hari Singh (Oct 26, 1947).
26th January 1950
Adoption of the Constitution of India
India officially became a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic. The constitution, the longest in the world, serves as the supreme law of the land, guaranteeing Fundamental Rights to its citizens.
- Key Features: Established a parliamentary democracy, federal structure with a strong center, Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP), and an independent judiciary.
- Enforcement: Came into force on Jan 26, 1950, a date chosen to commemorate the Purna Swaraj declaration of 1930.
- Adoption Date: Nov 26, 1949 (celebrated as Constitution Day/Law Day).
- Enforcement Date: Jan 26, 1950 (to honor Purna Swaraj Day of 1930).
- National Flag: Adopted July 22, 1947. Designed by Pingali Venkayya.
- National Anthem/Song: Adopted Jan 24, 1950.
- UK Borrowings: Parliamentary Govt, Rule of Law, Single Citizenship, Writs.
- USA Borrowings: Fundamental Rights, Judicial Review, Impeachment, Preamble.
- Ireland Borrowings: DPSP, Method of Election of President.
- Heart & Soul: Article 32 (Right to Constitutional Remedies) called so by Ambedkar.
- Mini Constitution: 42nd Amendment Act (1976).
- First Amendment: 1951 (Added 9th Schedule).
1951 - 1956 CE
First Five-Year Plan & States Reorganisation Act
India embarked on a path of planned economic development with the first Five-Year Plan, focusing on agriculture. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 was a major step in redrawing the map of India by creating states on a linguistic basis.
- First Five-Year Plan: Based on the Harrod-Domar model, it prioritized agriculture and irrigation (e.g., Bhakra-Nangal Dam).
- States Reorganisation: Acted on the recommendation of the Fazl Ali Commission, leading to the creation of 14 states and 6 union territories. Andhra Pradesh was the first state created on a linguistic basis.
- Planning Commission: Established March 1950 (Extra-constitutional body).
- First Plan (1951-56): Based on Harrod-Domar Model. Priority: Agriculture.
- Second Plan (1956-61): Based on P.C. Mahalanobis Model. Priority: Heavy Industry.
- NDC: National Development Council formed in 1952 to approve plans.
- Community Development: Program launched on Oct 2, 1952.
- Panchayati Raj: First adopted by Nagaur (Rajasthan) on Oct 2, 1959.
- Andhra State: First linguistic state formed Oct 1, 1953 (after death of Potti Sriramulu).
- Fazl Ali Commission: Formed 1953. Members: Fazl Ali, K.M. Panikkar, H.N. Kunzru.
- States Reorganisation Act 1956: Created 14 States and 6 UTs.
- Mixed Economy: India adopted mixed economy (Public + Private sectors).
1971 CE
Indo-Pakistani War & Liberation of Bangladesh
A major military conflict between India and Pakistan, triggered by the political crisis in East Pakistan. India's intervention was decisive and led to a major geopolitical shift in South Asia.
- Background: The war was a result of the Bangladesh Liberation War, as millions of refugees fled East Pakistan to India.
- Outcome: The Indian military achieved a swift victory, resulting in the surrender of 93,000 Pakistani soldiers and the creation of the independent nation of Bangladesh.
- Simla Agreement (1972): Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistan's Zulfikar Ali Bhutto signed this pact, formalizing the new Line of Control (LoC) in Kashmir.
- Mukti Bahini: Guerrilla resistance movement of East Pakistan trained by India.
- Sam Manekshaw: Army Chief during the war; later first Field Marshal.
- Indo-Soviet Treaty: 20-year treaty of friendship signed Aug 1971.
- Surrender: Gen A.A.K. Niazi surrendered with 93,000 troops on Dec 16, 1971 (Vijay Diwas).
- Shimla Agreement: Signed July 1972 between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.
- Emergency: Internal Emergency imposed by Indira Gandhi (1975-1977).
- Pokhran-I: First nuclear test (May 1974) codenamed 'Smiling Buddha'.
- 42nd Amendment (1976): Added words 'Socialist, Secular, Integrity' to Preamble.
- J.P. Movement: Total Revolution (Sampoorna Kranti) led by Jayaprakash Narayan against Emergency.
- Janata Party: Morarji Desai became first non-Congress PM in 1977.
1991 CE
Economic Liberalization
Facing a severe economic crisis, India initiated major economic reforms. Led by P.V. Narasimha Rao and Dr. Manmohan Singh, these reforms dismantled the 'Licence Raj' and opened up the economy, ushering in an era of high economic growth.
- LPG Reforms: This new economic policy was based on Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG).
- Context: The reforms were a response to a severe Balance of Payments (BoP) crisis, where India's foreign exchange reserves were nearly empty.
- Impact: Ended the "Licence-Permit Raj" and opened up sectors like IT and telecommunications, leading to rapid economic growth in the following decades.
- Leadership: P.V. Narasimha Rao (PM) and Dr. Manmohan Singh (Finance Minister).
- LPG Model: Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization.
- Crisis: Triggered by Balance of Payments (BoP) crisis; forex reserves dropped to 3 weeks of imports.
- Devaluation: Indian Rupee was devalued to boost exports.
- License Raj: Industrial licensing abolished for all except 18 industries (now 5).
- MRTP Act: Replaced by Competition Act later; restrictions on big firms removed.
- SEBI: Given statutory status in 1992 to regulate capital markets.
- NSE: National Stock Exchange established.
- Service Tax: Introduced for the first time in 1994.
- 73rd/74th Amendments (1992): Constitutional status to Panchayats and Municipalities.
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Glossary of Historical Terms
- Arthashastra
- An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy, traditionally attributed to Chanakya (Kautilya).
- Ashvamedha
- A horse sacrifice ritual used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty. A horse was released to roam freely, and any territory it crossed unchallenged was claimed by the king.
- Bhakti
- A movement emphasizing intense personal devotion to a single deity, which emerged in medieval Hinduism and offered a path to salvation regardless of caste.
- Chaitya
- A Buddhist shrine, prayer hall, or temple, often carved into rock. It features a stupa at the far end and was used for congregation and worship.
- Dhamma (Dharma)
- A moral and ethical code of conduct propagated by Emperor Ashoka. It was not a religion but a set of principles like non-violence, tolerance, and respect for elders.
- Diwani
- The right to collect revenue (taxes) from a territory. The British East India Company gained the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa after the Battle of Buxar (1764).
- Diwan-i-Arz
- The central military department of the Delhi Sultanate, responsible for recruiting, equipping, and maintaining the army. It was established by Balban.
- Diwan-i-Kohi
- A separate department for agriculture established by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq to bring new areas under cultivation and improve existing crops.
- Doab
- A term for the fertile land or tract of land lying between two converging, or "two" (do) "waters" (ab).
- Firman
- An official royal edict, decree, or command issued by a sovereign, particularly used by Mughal emperors.
- Iqta
- A system in the Delhi Sultanate where the land revenue from a territory (an 'iqta') was assigned to an official (an 'Iqtadar') in lieu of a cash salary. T
- Jauhar
- The practice of mass self-immolation by women in Rajput kingdoms to avoid capture, enslavement, and dishonor by invading enemy forces upon their defeat in battle.
- Jizya
- A per capita yearly tax historically levied on non-Muslim subjects (dhimmis) residing in a state governed by Islamic law.
- Kayal
- The local term for the numerous brackish lagoons and lakes (backwaters) that lie parallel to the Malabar Coast in Kerala.
- Mansabdari
- A military and administrative system introduced by Akbar. Officials (Mansabdars) were given a rank (mansab) that determined their salary and their quota of soldiers and horses to maintain.
- Pargana
- An administrative unit in the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, consisting of a group of villages. It was a subdivision of a *Sarkar* (district).
- Ryotwari
- A land revenue system in British India where revenue was collected directly from the individual cultivator (the 'ryot'), who was recognized as the owner of the land.
- Sabha & Samiti
- Two early Vedic political assemblies. The *Samiti* was a larger assembly of the common people, while the *Sabha* was a smaller, more exclusive body of elders or nobles.
- Satyagraha
- Literally "truth-force." A philosophy of non-violent resistance developed by Mahatma Gandhi, based on civil disobedience and a steadfast adherence to truth.
- Stupa
- A dome-shaped Buddhist monument, used as a place of meditation and to house sacred relics of the Buddha or other holy figures.
- Sulh-i-Kul
- Meaning "universal peace." A religious and social policy of tolerance and harmony among different religions, promulgated by the Mughal emperor Akbar.
- Swadeshi
- Meaning "of one's own country." A movement advocating for the boycott of British-made goods and the promotion of Indian-made goods, especially during the protest against the Partition of Bengal (1905).
- Vihara
- A Buddhist monastery, which included living quarters and meditation cells for monks. Like Chaityas, many were rock-cut structures.
- Zabti
- A land revenue assessment system introduced by Akbar. It involved detailed measurement of land and applying a fixed revenue rate (dastur) based on the crop and productivity.